Child criminal exploitation
Children exploited by paramilitaries and organised crime groups are not being formally identified as victims of modern slavery and human trafficking despite indicators that they may meet the criteria, a report has found.
Identifying modern slavery and human trafficking in the context of child criminal exploitation in Northern Ireland, published in June 2025, states that paramilitary organisations “remain active in and exert control over many communities”.
Between 2014 and 2024, 45,502 children across the UK and Northern Ireland were referred to the National Referral Mechanism (NRM) as potential victims of modern slavery and human trafficking. The NRM is a framework for identifying and referring potential victims of modern slavery and ensuring they receive the appropriate support.
Of the 45,502, 33 per cent (15,094) were referred for criminal exploitation. Out of this figure, 11,489 were UK nationals, comprising 10,762 males and 727 females. Only four of the 15,094 were referred in Northern Ireland and there has never been a UK or Irish male child in the region referred to the NRM.
The study states that the low referral rate “is particularly notable given the legacy of the past and continued presence of paramilitarism in Northern Ireland”. It finds that people have safety concerns about issuing referrals to the NRM. Interviewees expressed worries that children would be perceived as ‘touts’ or at risk of further harm.
Furthermore, poor quality NRM referrals may be rejected, potentially causing a child to be labelled a ‘tout’ but left without any of the protections the NRM provides. The study also identifies repeated collapses of the Executive as impeding progress on child criminal exploitation (CCE).
Paramilitaries
The study finds that CCE by paramilitaries and organised crime groups is a recognised problem but its framing as modern slavery or human trafficking (MSHT) has remained absent.
Of 43 individuals surveyed on the forms of exploitation, 98 per cent said it was linked to drugs, 79 per cent said it was linked to paramilitary activity, 70 per cent said it was linked to antisocial behaviour, 30 per cent said it was linked to forced shoplifting, and 26 per cent said it was linked to money laundering.
The study states that harms such as antisocial behaviour or drugs often occur “in the context of paramilitarism, or organised criminality with links to the legacy of the past”. It states that the NRM is “largely not being utilised”, and asserts that it could contribute additional support mechanisms.
Barriers to identification
Potential barriers to the identification of CCE as modern slavery in the North include the absence of a legal duty to do so and associated accountability mechanism. While referral to the NRM is said to be mandatory for children in the region, there are no legal consequences for failure to make a referral. Additionally, there are no requirements to otherwise notify the Home Office regarding potentially trafficked children.
The focus on movement within definitions of human trafficking is another potential barrier. ‘Modern slavery’ is not a term defined in international law. In the UK, it is used as an umbrella term for human trafficking, slavery, servitude, and forced labour. The study finds that human trafficking may be the most appropriate offence to cover much of what is described as CCE in Northern Ireland.
The study finds that CCE is not always recognised as a form of MSHT. When it is, formal identification via the NRM does not always take place. It states that this may be due to a lack of knowledge and awareness of the NRM, lack of confidence in making a referral, and views of the perceived benefits and drawbacks of making a referral.
Recommendations
The study recommends that the UK Government explore regional modifications to the NRM for it to function effectively in each devolved region. It also suggests that the UK Home Office resource a training and awareness programme on MSHT and CCE for those likely to encounter them in Northern Ireland.
For the Assembly, it recommends amending section two of the Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015 to remove the requirement for travel.
It also recommends enforcement of the ‘duty to notify’. The study states: “For adults, where an NRM is not made, a duty to notify (DTN) form must be filled in by those authorities who are deemed by statute to have the duty.”
However, the DTN provision is not yet in force. Under section 52 of the Modern Slavery Act, in England and Wales, certain authorities have a statutory duty to notify the Home Office when they encounter potential victims of modern slavery.
The study also recommends the introduction of Slavery and Trafficking Risk Orders (STROs) which are not yet in place in Northern Ireland. STROS were introduced under part two of the Modern Slavery Act 2015 to restrict the activities of a person who has not been convicted where there is a risk they will commit a trafficking offence.
Furthermore, the study recommends development of an MSHT and NRM toolkit to be incorporated into the CCE toolkit laid out in the CCE Action Plan. It also suggests investment in CCE and MSHT champions within regions, bodies, and sectors. These champions would be equipped to act as subject focal points for their respective organisations.
Minister of Justice Naomi Long MLA says: “Child criminal exploitation is a complex form of child abuse and the Department is committed to continuing to work collaboratively to raise awareness and to protect children at risk of exploitation.
“We will now take the time to consider the recommendations as part of the ongoing cross-government actions to address child criminal exploitation.”
